Indbyrdes
lån
- loanwords among the Scandinavian languages
Dates
given where known - source language forms in brackets
(Written
2000; Updated:
16
September 2011)
Font Colour Key:
black = loanword;
purple
= word in donor language;
green
= dates/periods loaned
Compared
to borrowing from non-Scandinavian donors, the proportion of vocabulary
in a
mainland Scandinavian language loaned directly from its Nordic
neighbours is
very small. The results of intra-Nordic borrowing across Scandinavia
have left
only modest traces when set against the visible and overwhelming
evidence of
Middle Low German, High German, French, Latin and (more recently)
English
loanwords in the common word-stock. The languages of the insular
nations, owing
to their relatively weaker political, economic and geographical
situations,
combined with a certain amount of dependence on the mainland nations
which
dominated them, have been more affected by their neighbouring
languages, as we
might expect. However, in these languages policies have been current
for some
time which aim at purging most loanwords (including mainland
Scandinavian - and
especially Danish) and replacing them with native revivals,
constructions or
neologisms. The policy of lexical purism in these two languages,
Icelandic and
Faroese, has been treated in a separate feature on this site.
The
Insular languages aside, lexical (and other) differences between the
Scandinavian languages up until the 1600s were not especially great.
This meant
that neighbouring mainland languages were both less likely to loan from
one
another, and if they did, their lexical, spelling and grammatical
systems were
so similar, that it has often been impossible for scholars to decide
whether a
word is indeed a loan or merely a native item not recorded elsewhere.
It is
known that Danish loans had probably entered into Swedish during the
late
medieval period, but such words are nigh on impossible to distinguish
from
words of native origin until the 1600s and 1700s. Many of the earlier
suspected
loans from Danish may have in fact been imported directly from Middle
Low
German, while most later MLG loanwords into Swedish were probably
transmitted
via Danish. As examples of this later phenomenon, we can note the weak
consonants in Swedish svag and bagare, which have very likely come in
with a certain amount of Danish mediation (Danish. svag
and bæger, but
MLG swak and beker).
The case of Norwegian (and especially Dano-Norwegian, later
Bokmål) is even more complicated
since Danish for so long was the language of prestige in Norway, and
influenced
Norwegian so much on every level, that it has only really been this
century we
can say for certain that Danish has been loaning into Norwegian as a
"foreign"
language. There were of course exceptions "Norwegianisms", noted
below.
Up
until this century, Danish had been the most influential donor language
and was
most active in loan-giving, supplying new words to its Icelandic and
Faroese
dominions, Norway and big brother Sweden. However, the 20th century has
seen
the tide turn and Sweden, as the major political, economic and
demographic
power in Scandinavia, has now become the most important loan-giver,
providing
both Danish, and especially the geographically and linguistically
closer Norway
with quite a few loans in recent times.
In
several cases we can observe the passage of loans from one donor to
both of the
other two mainland languages, sometimes at different time periods. For
example
Swedish has given företag to both
Danish (foretag) and Norwegian (foretak), with Danish presumably
receiving the loan first (although it is not improbable that Danish
itself
passed it on to Norwegian). A similar example is Swedish göromål
becoming gøremål
in 1800s Danish and gjøremål in
Norwegian; which of these received the loan first I do not know, but in
this
case it seems certain that Swedish supplied both and we can probably
rule out
Danish interference on Norwegian. Even more interesting is to observe a
loan
moving diachronically across three languages. Swedish supplied Danish
with oms, which in its turn
subsequently
loaned it to Norwegian. The recent Swedish construction kontorslandskap
was probably calqued on German Bürolandschaft
and Swedish then obligingly offered the calque to
Danish users. Perhaps most fascinating of all is to witness an ancient
Insular
word becoming current across all the Mainland languages. In the 1600s
Icelandic
gáta "puzzle, riddle" was
taken up in Swedish as gåta, which
then duly lent the word to Danish (via
Norwegian) – some time in the following century according
to the extant
evidence.
It
is not until the 1700s that intra-Nordic loans first become clearly
discernible, although some borrowing from Icelandic (especially into
Swedish -
see below) had taken place during the previous century. From the break
up of
the Union of Kalmar in 1523 until the end of the Great Nordic War in
1721,
there had been some 200 years of hostilities between the rivalling
powers of
Sweden and Denmark, and loans during this period were almost out of the
question. During the Union period, Denmark was the major player and
took little
from Swedish, while the flow of loans vis-à-vis Norway were all from
Danish,
which became the official written language there about 1500. Around
1750 things
began to change and we see the first considerable influx of Swedish
words into
Danish at this time, e.g. særskilt,
tidehverv, sysselsætte,
omdømme, nyfigen
and snille. Since that time
intra-Nordic borrowing has grown significantly
(but still makes up only a small fraction of loanwords in the
Scandinavian
languages), at least as far as the three mainland languages are
concerned.
Unrecognised loans can be problematic since they are often accepted
unquestionably (see for example, the remarks made about Swedish loans
into
Norwegian below). Denmark and Norway seem to greatly resent Swedicisms,
but
equally some in Norway and Sweden resent the still considerable lexical
influence Danish has on their languages. A great deal of debate about
intra-Nordic loaning occurred in the 1800s, when a spirit of Nordic
nationalism
and Romanticism was capturing the imagination of the North. Some
welcomed these
loans but many objected to them. The Dane Sven Clausen again stirred up
the
debate in the 30s and 40s of this century. Einar Lundeby writing in the
Språk i Norden periodical in 1987
about
the new dictionaries that had just appeared reckoned that during the
period
1945-85 Swedish had loaned 7 words from Danish and 2 or 3 from
Norwegian; Danish
had loaned 14 words to Norwegian and Norwegian had given 16 in return;
Swedish
had given 101 to Norwegian, 71 to Danish plus a further 44 of “possible
influence”. So the traffic is assuredly in the opposite direction to
the
situation in the 1800s, when most words travelled from Danish to
Swedish.
It
will be easier to briefly consider the loaning trends for each language
in turn
and the debts it owes to its neighbours:
i) Swedish
As
stated above, Danish always has been, and continues to be, the most
significant
Nordic influence on the Swedish lexicon, although most of the traffic
is now in
the opposite direction. When considering earlier loans, it can be hard
to
decide if Danish or Dano-Norwegian has been the donor as the these two
languages were last century almost identical on paper (even if a loan
can be
proven to have been borrowed from Dano-Norwegian, the language often
acted as a
mediating filter for Danish proper anyway). The picture is further
complicated
by the south Swedish (or should I say north Danish?!) dialects of Skåne
and
Halländ, which can be said to represent a halfway house between High
Swedish on
the one hand and Rigsdansk on the
other. Some words suspected as having been loaned in from Danish may in
reality
have been words made "standard" by their importation from these
regional Danish-like dialects.
A
small amount of literary influence from the likes of Holberg in the
1600s and
1700s is noticeable, but the last two hundred years have been most the
active
as regards loan-giving from other Nordic languages into Swedish, and of
the
1800s, the 1880s and 1890s were especially productive, with Swedish
lexically
acknowledging literary influences from Danish Romantics such as Georg
Brandes
and J.P. Jacobsen. Scandinavianists loaned most Danish loans still
current in
Swedish during the middle, and towards the end of, the last century.
However,
during the 1700s and 1800s, Swedish was feeling the effects of massive
lexical
(and to some degree grammatical) influence from first French, and then
High
German - indeed the influence of the latter did not abate until the
early
decades of this century. So great was this German burden upon Swedish
that it
caused Johan Erik Rydqvist, discussing in his great work Svenska
Språkets Lagar the language of the public
institutions, to write the following in 1874:
...de
obetänka
försöken att draga öfver oss en ständigt växande ny massa af illa
förstådda
eller tafatt tillämpade alster från den Tyska och den Danska pressen
(We
might note Swedish now has a not dissimilar influence on the Norwegian
press). Rydqvist
continues:
Vårt
embetsspråk,
redan djupt skuldsatt i Tyskland och Danmark, borde icke öka gälden med
ett så
öfverflödigt och litet tilltalande ord som "försändelse,
brefförsändelse,
postförsändelse".
This
huge foreign influence (which, at least with regard to German, is
equally
relevant to Danish), can make it difficult to distinguish whether a
loan from
earlier times has been imported directly from German, or else used
Danish as a
mediator, if the word is found loaned in both Swedish and Danish. Some
examples
of this are given in the lists below, e.g.: has Swedish gräll
come directly from German grell,
or has it been borrowed from the Danish loan of the same? Swedish avsnitt (when meaning a period of time
or piece of writing) may have come directly from German Abschnitt
or perhaps been filtered through via Danish afsnit.
Some instances are a bit
clearer: Swedish storartad has
probably been borrowed from Danish storartet,
a Scandinavianisation of German grossartig,
upon which both are ultimately based. Similarly, Swedish framhäva
and ta avstand frå
are clearly loaned from Danish (fremhæve,
tage afstand fra) but both are
ultimately modelled on German hervorheben
and Abstand nehmen von
respectively.
Despite the new influence of Danish Romanticism in the 1800s and the
war with
Germany which peaked in 1864, High German remained the best known
language in
Sweden and Scandinavia generally, and the greatest donor of loanwords,
contributing lexical items in all walks of life.
It
is a fact that many intra-Nordic loans at first appear to be strange
and
superfluous while they compete with native synonyms, whereas once they
succeed
in gaining access to the normal language, they no longer are felt to be
strange
and as a rule meet far less resistance. Many of the "Danicisms"
objected to by the likes of Rydqvist and later the Swedish linguists
Olof
Hellqvist and Adolf Noreen, were originally used by one or two writers
but now
no longer seem foreign, indeed some are now part of everyday Swedish.
Analogous
remarks apply to some Swedish loans into Norwegian [see below].
Scandinavia,
in line with the rest of Europe, experienced its own Romantic
renaissance and
with all the associated implications this entails. The Scandinavianist
movement
perhaps reached its peak during the 1840s and within it two strong but
conflicting forces were at work. On the one hand, there was a strong
impetus
for pan-Nordic cultural and political unity and Scandinavian
supranationalism,
but on the other hand, national conservatism and national pride of
one's
heritage and culture also played a large part, especially in Norway and
the
insular Nordic nations. So during the 1800s we see some commentators in
favour
of closer Nordic ties - languages included - while other leading
critics were
fiercely opposed to indbyrdes lån
on
the grounds of national pride and an idealised historical past. Many of
the
Danish loans into Swedish during this period are a result of this
Romanticism,
even if most of them can be traced to Denmark's powerful neighbour to
the
south, which was itself a massive donor of words at this time to all
European
and Nordic nations. The Swede, Sturzen-Becker, writing during the
1840s, no
doubt influenced by the flow of ideas coming out of Denmark, was
notorious for
testing out his own Danish loans, e.g. glädjelig
(Dan. glædelig, but Mod. Swed.
glädjende)
or namnligen (Dan. navnlig,
but mod. Swed. särskilt). Only
a few of his imports (of which most were taken up with over-eager
haste) have
endured into 20th century Swedish, e.g.: stillfärdig,
underfundig, undervärdera,
övervärdera,
livsglad, livstrött,
omsving and på
tvärs. Despite the opposition from
some quarters, it can be safely be said that the Scandinavianist
movement of
the 1800s lead to more internal trafficking of loanwords in Scandinavia
and the
replacement by these of some earlier High German calques, or else
French loans
(especially in Swedish) from the same period. Literature and the press
were
important agents in this change.
The
earliest loans from Norwegian into Swedish come from period of the
"Great
Four" of Norwegian literature (i.e. Henrik Ibsen, Bjørnstjerne
Bjørnson,
Jonas Lie and Alexander Kielland) in which Norwegian was hardly
distinguishable
on paper from Danish. These loans could therefore just as easily be
pure
Danicisms. Most loans that can be definitely said to be from Norwegian
proper
are concerned with characteristically Norwegian things or concepts (at
least
originally), e.g.: huldra and slalom. The same applies equally to
Norwegian loans into Danish (see below).
Finally,
of great interest is a small influx of Icelandic words into Swedish
especially,
earlier in the modern period, during the 1600s. This was at a time when
interest in the old Nordic and Viking past was having a renaissance in
Scandinavia (just as in England and Germany) and scholars like Ole Worm
were
disseminating knowledge about the Old Norse language, literature and
culture.
Swedish scholar and antiquarian Georg Stiernhielm in his book from this
period Gambla Swea och Götha Måles
fatebur
shows he had clearly been much influenced by a sentiment for the common
Nordic
past and the allure of the ancient literature. He lamented that Swedish
has
become too much the repository of foreign words and phrases and he
would like
to see his mother tongue cleansed of this uncomfortable baggage. That
could be
best achieved by becoming acquainted with the Old Norse works and
reviving some
of the Old Icelandic purity and clarity of expression into modern
Swedish (and
Scandinavian):
“Summan
på saken
är denne: iagh hafwer rönt wårt swenska tungomåls feel och fattigdom.
Orsaken
ther til hafwer iagh funnet, at thet gamble målet är nederlagt och
kommet i
förgätenheet - ja, i så tiock förgätenheet, at nästan ingen mehr fins,
som thet
förstår; thet doch är fult aff allehanda märckelige betydande ord och
ordasätt,
hwilke alle eller mästendels kunna optagas, förnyas och så maakliga
föras i
bruk igen, hwilket icke allenast skulle göra wårt måål flödigt och
rijkt, uthan
och liuft, fagert och prydeligt....”
Some
of the words which Stiernhielm advocated for loan or revival are still
used in
Swedish and some have gained currency thereby in other Nordic
languages. For
example, gåta from Icelandic gáta (later loaned from Swedish to
Danish), fylking from the Icelandic
word of the same (also current in Norwegian), härja
from Icelandic herja,
now seems completely at home in Swedish and the other Nordic languages
(cf.
English harry, from OE hergian "lay waste"), as does drapa "kill" from Icelandic drepa. Both Swedish and Danish (and
therefore by implication, Norwegian) were enriched by these loans from
early
modern Icelandic or else the Old Norse of the sagas, but unfortunately
many of
these loans have remained confined to purely literary genres. Never
more than
during the 1600s has Swedish been coloured more with foreign words and
this
situation encouraged the radical views of thinkers such as Stiernhielm,
whose
remedial policy to some degree encouraged intra-Nordic borrowing.
During the
1800s, Danish was to become an important loaning agent on Swedish, even
if many
such loans were ultimately of German origin.
ii)
Danish
Danish
has been, until the 20th century, the main provider of intra-Nordic
loans
across Scandinavia, and until this century, Denmark had always exported
more
loans than it imported from its Scandinavian neighbours. Denmark and
Danish
have also usually been the media which have introduced Low and High
German
loans and trends in literature into the rest of Scandinavia. Much
concerning
the relations between Denmark and Sweden, the Union of Kalmar, German
influence, Romanticism and Danish loans has been discussed in the
section on Swedish
(above). In this section, it simply remains to note some examples of
loaning
periods into Danish and what effect other Nordic tongues have been
having upon
the language.
It
is generally easier to detect Swedish loans into Danish than Norwegian
ones,
even today. This is simply due to written and spoken Swedish being more
distant
from Danish than Norwegian. When Norway was under Danish rule and a
Norwegianised form of Danish (Riksmål)
was the normal written language in Norway, this situation was even more
clean-cut. Very little of the material loaned into Danish from
Norwegian has
not been present in some form in Swedish and most loans from Norwegian
are
concerned with (originally) uniquely Norwegian things and concepts,
so-called
"norskheter", e.g. sæter, klipfisk, fos
and hyggelig. Indeed,
it is often the case that when Swedish loans Danish a word which is
also found
in Norwegian, Swedish has supplied that word to Norwegian at an earlier
time.
Nevertheless, loans from Norwegian begin to appear after the union
break-up of
1814, and the greats of Norwegian literature such as Ibsen and Bjørnson
did
exercise some lexical influence on Danish towards the end of the last
century.
Not a few of the Norwegianisms in Danish come directly from these
authors. A couple
of literary loans from this period are med
én gang (Nor. med en gang),
now
found alongside native Danish på én gang
and nokså "quite" (Nor. nokså), which was loaned in the early
1900s but revived once more into common Danish usage after 1945.
Swedish
influence on Danish - as one might expect - has been a more significant
phenomenon, especially during the post-1945 period. A note on early
Swedish
loans has already been given in the introductory section above. It is
difficult
to categorise the types of loans from Swedish that have found their way
into
Danish and they are rather a mixed bag. However, quite a strong
influence in
the areas of technology and business is discernible, occasionally
(surprisingly
enough) deriving from High German loans into Swedish. Easier to
classify is the
supposed grammatical effect modern Swedish has been having on modern
Danish.
According to the article by Alan Karker [see source-list below],
Swedish has in
particular been adding to the number of noun and adjective suffixes
current in
everyday Danish. For example:
-bevidst,
from Swedish -medveten (this is a
calqued suffix),
e.g. as in prisbevidst "price
conscious"
-rigtig, from Swedish -riktig,
e.g. as in moderigtig
-venlig, from Swedish -vänlig,
e.g. as in bilvenlige færger
"car-friendly colours".
Karker
further claims that a number of recent adjectives suggest that in some
senses,
the suffix -bar (denoting -able, -ible
in English) is on its way to replacing the more usual Danish -lig (cf. English -ly)
for the same function and furthermore this is down to Swedish
influence. Among the examples he gives are flytbar
"flyable, worthy of flight" for earlier flyttelig
and vaskbar
"washable" for earlier afvaskelig.
He
then goes on to give a series of quotations from Danish literature and
journalism where Danish writers adopt Swedish words and expressions in
order to
demonstrate the continuing pressure Swedish exerts on modern Danish. A
couple
of representative examples culled from these are:
den
hvileløse og
vejløse længsel som er Columbus-digtets indebyrd...
(Thomas
Bredsdorff, 1967, shows
unmistakable usage of Swedish innebörd
"content, essence")
and
nu
bevidner
vi med forundring og forfærdelse, at hagekorset tilsyneladende er livet
op
igen.
(Adolph
Rastén, 1960, clearly recalls Swedish bevittna
"testify, be witness to").
By
and large it can be said that the average Dane is well aware of the
great debt
his language owes to Middle Low German, High German, French and
English, but is
far less aware of the nonetheless appreciable debt it also owes to his
Nordic
sister-languages. Just as in Sweden, both welcome and hostility have
been the
reactions to intra-Nordic borrowing in Denmark down the decades, with
many
Danes preferring the standard Latinate or Greek-derived terms of
international
science, law and diplomacy. In particular, many Danes (along with many
Norwegians) bemoan the seemingly ever-increasing number of svecismer "Swedicisms" encroaching into
their language.
On the flip side of the coin, there have been those have welcomed
Swedish or
Swedish influenced words and phrases into Danish, in the spirit of
Nordic
co-operation and pan-nationalism. The best known of these is perhaps
the Danish
historian Sven Clausen, who in the 1930s and 1940s again stirred up the
debate
about common Nordic words, by among other things, attempting to
(re-)introduce
such words into Danish as børje
(cf.
Swedish börja, Icelandic byrja) and ømsesidig
(cf. Swedish ömsesidig).
His attempts have not been successful.
iii) Norwegian
In
trying to identify grannspråk loans
in Norwegian, we are faced with some serious challenges. The problems
have
their roots in the fact that from circa 1500 to 1900 Danish (or a
Norwegianised
version of it) was the officially sanctioned language in Norway and
genuine
Norwegian dialects were marginalised. Well into this century, even
after
several official language reforms and the adoption of Norwegian as the
state
language, Danish still exerted considerable influence in many areas of
Norwegian lexical usage. For some 400 years Danish and the official
written
language of Norway were so similar, that it can be impossible to decide
at
times whether a word has been loaned from Danish or is of genuine
Norwegian
origin, should it not appear in more ancient extant sources or
Norwegian
dialects. This can still be a problem even now, as written Norwegian
and Danish
are much more alike than written Swedish and Danish. Due to the sheer
size and
extent of the Danish influence on Norwegian down four centuries, it is
impossible to do it justice in this small article (if at all) and I
shall
confine the discussion to a few post-war loans, when the distinctions
between
Norwegian and Danish are clearer and the size of the Danish
contribution is
easily manageable. Knallert
"small motorbike" was loaned from Danish, but has since been ousted
by Swedish moped and Danish dollargrin has been admitted into
Norwegian in the last few decades, albeit in the strengthened and
partly fornorsket form dollarglis. Further we can note gyser
(or Norwegianised, grøsser)
"thriller" (Dan. gyser), studine "female student" from
Danish studine and oms
from Danish oms (abbreviation for omsetningsafgift).
Icelandic
influence on Norwegian, just as on Swedish, is a fascinating prospect.
Such an
influence has been felt partly through pan-Scandinavian nationalism,
Romanticism and antiquarianism during previous centuries, with the
borrowing of
words from the Old Norse sagas etc. and partly as a result of the målstrev in Norway - a struggle which
still
going on today. Norwegian Nynorsk,
being both closer to Icelandic in form and spirit, has been the focus
of most
of the attention of the Icelandic influence. I say influence, rather
than
direct loans, because Icelandic has been more of a model and
inspiration for
the Norwegian language purists and Romantics than a direct donor
language,
although some do exist in older Nynorsk. Ivar Aasen, linguist,
visionary and
father of the New-Norwegian movement himself constructed some
neologisms from
Icelandic models, e.g. ravkraft for
"electricity" (cf. Ice. rafmagn),
framvarp for what is now denoted by framlegg and utkast
(cf. Ice. frumvarp)
and leikhus for "theatre"
(cf. Ice. leikhús). Largely thanks
to
Aasen, prenteverk
"print-works" is more common in Nynorsk than trykkeri
(cf. Ice. prentasmiðja)
and skuldbrev, vedskifte
and til dømes
"for example" (cf. Ice. til
dæmis - Bokmål til eks.)
are also
more common in Nynorsk than Bokmål. It is possible that the increasing
interest
in Norwegian schools in modern rather than Old Icelandic will lead to
more new
Icelandic influence in the future. Words which had been preserved in
Norwegian
rural dialects, but whose current prominence may at least in part be
due to
Icelandic influence combined with a certain amount of Romanticism are røynsle (cf. Ice. reynsla
- Bokmål equivalent is erfaring),
kar (cf. Ice. karlmaður
- Bokmål has mann),
skilnad (cf. Ice. skilnaður
- Bokmål has forskjell) and I
wonder if the Nynorsk
forms eg "I" and hine
"the rest, the others"
don't owe at least something to Icelandic ég
and hinir (Bokmål forms are jeg and øvrige).
That is not to deny that the Nynorsk forms could be
parallel developments from Old Norwegian, of course.
In
post-war Norwegian, Swedish is the Nordic language borrowed from the
most. It
is generally a truism that one tends to loan words from languages
having great
prestige (or at least perceived to have such) and of the Scandinavian
countries, Sweden with its larger population, economic and cultural
power certainly
has this. New terminology is often created in Sweden, but Norwegian
also
borrows more everyday words like anse.
Sweden's press exercises a considerable influence on Norwegian
newspapers and
Swedish film, radio and television have an equally influential presence
in
Norwegian cultural life. It comes as no surprise then, that during the
present
century and especially after the last war, Swedish has been
contributing an
ever-increasing number of words and expressions to the Norwegian
lexicon.
Although
written Norwegian is generally closer to written Danish than Swedish,
this is
by no means always the case, and in a large minority of cases Norwegian
words
are found to be closer to the Swedish. This is particularly the case
with
Swedish and Nynorsk. However, Swedish phonology is much closer to
Norwegian
than that of Danish and despite some orthographical or lexical
differences,
Swedish loans can often be assimilated into Norwegian without most
users being
aware that they are not native Norwegian. Often it will only be during
the
initial period of in-loaning that such words or expressions will be
perceived
as being foreign or new. Older loans from Swedish have been so
thoroughly
assimilated and have become so much a part of the general vocabulary
that they
seem completely Norwegian: foretak,
gjøremål, medviten,
odle, samvit,
åtgjerd, framstående.
There is so much variation to be found in spoken and written Norwegian
in all
its forms, that at times a new loan from Swedish will be considered as
a
variant of a Norwegian form that has entered into standard usage. In
other
instances Swedish is consciously used by Norwegians for certain
purposes, e.g.
the dramatist Henrik Ibsen deliberately gave some of his characters
Swedish
speech and expressions to achieve stylistic effect, as can be clearly
seen from
Peer Gynt.
A
more subtle Swedish influence often not noted in Norwegian dictionaries
can
result in changes in word meanings, expanded user base, or cause
Norwegian
dialect items to become current in the standard language or a Nynorsk
word
gaining entry into Bokmål. Norwegian dialects are so rich and varied
that what
is a Swedish loan for one user may be consider as a native word by
another. A
number of words may just as easily be Swedish loans as Norwegian
regionalisms
and opinion is often divided as to their original provenance, e.g.: omtykt, kry
(in the sense "fresh"), givende, gedigen, spark,
rettfram, bortkommen.
Swedish has also transmitted loans that are non-Nordic in origin into
Norwegian, e.g.: panel, televisjon, svevebåt,
lagarbeid, kontorlandskap,
tenåring.
As
is the case with Danish, Swedish is also exerting an influence on
Norwegian at
the level of grammar and word-formation. A couple of characteristically
Swedish
suffixes have been quite enthusiastically adopted into Norwegian in
recent
decades: -ig and -is.
The Swedish adjectival suffix -ig
has provided Norwegian with a new
means of forming descriptive adjectives, e.g. stenig
(usual Nor. stenet,
steinet), stormig,
vatnig, stilig,
lusig (Nor. luset),
tråkig and sexig.
Swedish -is has
become productive in Norwegian as a noun forming suffix, e.g. sjekkis "cheque", no doubt
influenced by the several direct loans from Swedish with this suffix: kjendis, kompis,
sjampis, kondis
and frekkis.
The
influence of Swedish on Norwegian, it is true, is much smaller and
often more
subtle than the massive external pressure exerted by American English,
but it
is still a significant source of Norwegian lexical activity and
innovation.
Swedish words are often much less problematic in adapting to the
Norwegian
phonological and inflexional systems than English ones and many
Norwegians
regard them as less foreign and invasive newcomers.
See
the separate
article
I have written for this area.
v)
Pan-Nordic co-operation and
loans
Particularly
since the last war there have been efforts made to harmonise vocabulary
in
certain limited fields across the whole of Scandinavia. Realisation had
set in
that in many cases terms for the same object or concept were different
in the
three major languages - especially within scientific and technological
spheres.
Sometimes this situation had arisen as a result of the three mainland
languages
each adopting, or differently adapting, foreign loans for technical
terms etc.
A classic example is that "computer" is dator
in Swedish, datamat
in Danish (now usually computer)
and datamaskin in Norwegian.
Similar
parallels can be found in many areas involving recent technology and
innovation. Clearly this situation is not conducive to pan-Nordic
co-operation
and commerce and over the past few decades attempts have been made to samordna the adoption of new loans into
Scandinavia and harmonise older ones across all three nations. Gösta
Bergman
has expressed quite tersely some of the goals of such a policy of
harmonisation:
På
olika områden
råder nordiskt samarbete. Man utbyter erfarenheter och söker samordna
och rationalisera
sin verksamhet...Det finns emellertid också fackområden, där man går
ett steg
längre och söker åstadkomma större samstämmighet i terminologin.
[Bergman,
1971a, p.29]
The
Nordisk språksekretariat (now the Nordisk språkråd) as well as several
other Scandinavian consultative and deliberative bodies have been
instrumental
in this work. I can only give a few examples in what is a complex,
involving,
controversial and continuing process. In 1951 a common Nordic
electrochemical
wordlist was published in Sweden by the Teknisken
nomenklaturcentralen ["Central Agency for Technical
Terminology"], with equivalents given in English to avoid any possible
confusion about what concept was intended. The editor claimed that he
had
achieved approximately a 66% agreement in all three languages across
the 2000
terms supplied. Not perfect, but a good start. Work was obviously
required to
harmonise these terms further and iron out glaring differences or
ambiguous
elements. In the fields of law and public administration changes have
also been
effected. In 1958 Danish adopted advokat
"lawyer" in place of earlier sagfører
to conform with the prevailing usage in Sweden and Norway. Two years
earlier
the Nordiske Sprognævn suggested
that
postkort (already used in Finland
Swedish)
ought to replace brevkort in the
interests of not only common Nordic relations but also international
relations
and communication. Norway and Sweden adopted the proposal in 1962 but
Denmark
lagged behind somewhat and only implemented it in 1971. Again, in the
interests
of common Nordic understanding, Denmark in 1966 adopted arbejdsformidling
for earlier arbejdsanvisning,
modelled on Swedish arbetsförmedling.
Some similar changes occurred within schools and education, for example
"political science" became in 1959 statskundskab
in Denmark, in harmony with Swedish statskunskap
but Norwegian continues to
rebel somewhat, preferring statsvitskap.
The
idealistic Scandinavianists of the previous century learnt that to
completely
harmonise the lexicon across Scandinavia would be too controversial
(how would
you decide the chosen term?), expensive (schoolbooks, dictionaries
re-written,
people re-taught) and would alienate too many people (many preferred
international loans to Nordic ones). So the objective now, as Bergman
expressed
it above, is primarily to harmonise the ever-increasing and innovative
vocabulary of scientific and technical progress. But not everyone is
happy with
even this more modest aim. Generally speaking the Danes have been most
internationally
minded in suggesting that international loans be made common fare
across all
three nations. A study of foreign loans by the Nordisk
språksekretariat has shown this and also illustrated that
the Swedes prefer to naturalise loans, while the more conservative
Norwegians
are most likely to seek out native alternatives from the resources of
their own
language. There are nevertheless many common loan translations that
have been
harmonised across all three languages. Karker
(1996) mentions a few of these (p.83): databehandling
(Swed. databehandling,
Nor. databehandling), familieplanlægning (Swed. familjeplanering,
Nor. familieplanlegging), grøn bølge (Swed.
grön våg, Nor. grøn bølge), kulturmønster
(Swed. kulturmönster,
Nor. kulturmønster), nedtrapning
(Swed. nedtrappning, Nor.
nedtrapping),
det tavse flertal (Swed. den tysta majoriteten, Nor. det tause majoritet), topmøde
(Swed. toppmöte, Nor. toppmøte),
at øremærke (Swed. att
öronmärka,
Nor. å øremerke), at
bakke op (from which Norwegian and
Swedish derived substantives oppbakking
and uppbackning respectively -
Swed. att backa
upp, Nor. å bakke opp), kassettebånd (Swed. kassettband,
Nor. kassettbånd),
motorvej (Swed. motorväg,
Nor. motorvei).
In
the informal language and less official capacities progress is also
being made.
For example, Danish has adopted frysetøj
from Norwegian frysetøy "frozen
fruit" (modelled after syltetøy
"jam, conserve"), grovkøkken
is inspired by Swedish grovkök,
while
kontorlandskab also owes its advent
to Swedish kontorslandskap, which
in
its turn can be traced to German Bürolandschaft.
Danish tilvalgsskole has been
modelled on Swedish tillvalsskola, oms on Swedish and Norwegian oms and el,
elværk from Swedish
and Norwegian el(-). Earlier Danish
flyvemaskine has been abbreviated to
fly probably in imitation of Swedish
flyg and Norwegian fly,
while Norwegian fikse
and/or Swedish fixa have given rise
in Danish to the verb fikse. Karker
(1996, p.83) mentions some further examples of harmonisation across the
three
languages in words formed from the native word-stock (even if some
translate
English words): dybfryser (Swed. djupfrysskåp, Nor. djupfryser),
forslumme (Swed.
förslummas, Nor. forslumme),
indeklima (Swed.
innerklimat, Nor. inneklima),
lommeregner (Swedish fickräknare,
Nor. lommerekner), lydmur
(Swed.
ljudvall, Nor. lydmur),
lønglidning (Swed. löneglidning,
Nor. lønnsglidning),
målgruppe (Swed. målgrupp,
Nor. målgruppe),
postnummer (Swed. postnummer,
Nor. postnummer), ratlås
(Swed.
rattlås, Nor. rattelås),
skumgummi (Swed.
skumgummi, Nor. skumgummi),
småpakke (Swed.
småpaket, Nor. småpakke),
storfamilie (Swed.
storfamilj, Nor. storfamilie),
strygefri (Swed.
strykfri, Nor. strykfri),
tværpolitisk (Swed.
tvärpolitisk, Nor. tverrpolitisk),
uland (Swed. u-land
Nor. u-land), vægavis
(Swed. väggtidning,
Nor. veggavis).
There
are not a few other examples of this fascinating interchange and
harmonisation
of terms. Icelandic and Faroese vocabulary and loans in scientific,
technical
and public spheres is a wholly different matter and has been dealt with
in a
separate article.
Although
progress has been made, harmonisation across the three mainland
languages in
technical, scientific and specialist vocabulary is far from having been
achieved and of course the same could never be done for the general,
everyday
vocabulary. Despite their many similarities, the Scandinavian languages
have
always differed along an array of gradations from "a little" to
"very much" even in their everyday vocabulary - and this part of
their charm. That situation is never likely to change but it would be
beneficial to all if new terms coming into all three languages could be
harmonised in the interests of Nordic unity and mutual understanding.
That is a
prospect that looks increasingly likely to be realised in the future.
Section
1: Loans
into Mainland Scandinavian
a)
(Early) Modern
Icelandic into Mainland Scandinavian:
(Danish/Norwegian) fredhellig
[friðheilagur or
perhaps ON friðheilagr],
idrætt,
idrett,
idrott
[íþrótt], jøkel,
jøkul,
jökel
[jökull], kenning,
kenning,
kenning
[kenning], norne,
norna
[norn];
b) Old Norse
into Modern Scandinavian:
bane, bane,
bane (ON bani), bersærk,
berserk,
bärsärk
[ON beserkr],
(Danish/Norwegian Bokmål) frasagn [ON frásögn]
(Nor. Nyn. fråsegn has probably
been
in continuous use and is not a revived word), holmgang, holmgang,
holmgang
[ON holmganga],
härnad,
hernad
(Swedish/Norwegian) [ON hernaðr],
højsæde,
høysete, högsäte
(1500-1700
in Danish; Old Swedish høghsæta
is probably not the source of the modern Swedish) [ON hásæti],
knæsætte,
knesette, knäsätta
(late 1600s)
[ON
knésetja], landnåm, landnam
[ON landnám],
norrøn,
norrön [ON norræn;
loaned 1100-1500
in Danish, appearing first
as noræn], ordskifte [ON orðaskipti; Danish
loaned from Norwegian], ragnarok,
ragnarok,
ragnarök,
[ON ragna rök],
saga
[ON saga],
(Danish/Swedish; while Old Danish sagha,
sage and Old Swedish sagha
fell from use, Nynorsk soge never
did. Its modern meaning is "history"), sejd, seid,
sejd
[ON seið], sott
(Danish and
Norwegian), sot (Swedish) [sott], viking [ON
víkingr; cf. Runic Danish wîkingR], vølve,
vala
[ON völva, vala] våbenfør,
våpenfør, vapenför
(appears in Danish as vaabenfør 1500-1700)
[ON vápnfærr];
See
also section for Swedish below for more loans from
Icelandic.
Section
2: Loans into Swedish
a)
Danish to Swedish: klöver (1688) [kløver], ruter
(1688), kältring
(1689)
[kæltring], dana (1712) [danne], kannstöpare
(1729), hjärter
(1739)
[hjerter], spader
(1738) [spader], avenbok
(1740s), skötesynd
(1766)
[skødesynd], undvara
(1794) [undvære], eftermäle
(1815) [eftermæle],
storartad
(1832) [storartet,
Ger. Grossartig],
betingelse
(1835) [betingelse],
hänsyn
(1830s) [hensyn],
slank
(1839) [slank],
avsnitt
(c.1840) [afsnit,
Ger. Abschnitt],
säregen
(1845) [særegen], försändelse
(1847) [forsendelse],
ensartad
(1851) [ensartet],
samfärdsel
(1853) [samfærdsel],
levebröd
(1855) [levebrød],
obönhörlig
(1862) [ubønhørlig],
inlägg
(1873) [indlæg],
misstänkliggöra
(1873) [mistænkeliggøre],
övergrepp
(1873) [overgreb],
självövervinnelse
(1881) [selvovervindelse],
spinnsidan
(1882) [spindeside],
genombrott
(1883) [gennembrud],
särmärke
(1883) [særmærke],
tillnärmelsevis
(1883) [tilnærmelsesvis],
dis
(1884) [dis],
upplevelse
(1884) [oplevelse],
förälskelse
(1880s) [forelskelse],
nedärvd
(1880s) [nedarvet],
förståelse
(1889) [forståelse],
rundhänt
(1890) [rundhåndet],
racka
med på (1891)
[regne med på], självsyn
(1892)
[selvsyn], spydig
(1892) [spydig], lyhörd
(1894) [lydhør],
ta
avstånd från (1894)
[tage afstand fra,
Ger. Abstand
nehmen von], besvikelse
(later 1800s) [besvigelse], frejdig
(later
1800s) [frejdig],
höra hemma
(later 1800s) [høre hjemme],
räckvidd
(late 1800s), uppsving
(later 1800s) [opsving],
begivenhet
(1901) [begivenhed,
Ger. Begebenheit],
bil
(1902) [bil], den
gången (early
1900s) [den
gangen], upphovsrätt
(1952) [ophavsret],
omstigning
(1950s) [omstigning],
avstickare
[afstikker, Ger.
Abstecher],
falla
igenom [falde
igennem], framhäva
[fremhæve, Ger. hervorheben],
förnärma
(post-1800) [fornærme],
gräll
[grel, Ger. grell],
inlåta
sig på [indlade sig på] inträngande
[indtrængende], någon som helst
[nogen som helst],
omvärlden
[omverden], snacksalig
[snakkesalig],
styv
kuling [stiv
kuling], utjämna
[udjævne];
b)
Danish or
Norwegian to Swedish: berika
(late
1800s) [Dan. berige,
Nor. berike], bestyrelse
(late
1800s) [Dan. bestyrelse,
Nor. bestyrelse],
diktning
(late
1800s) [Dan. digtning,
Nor. dikting], häntyda
(late
1800s) [Dan. hentyde,
Nor. hentyde], kräsen
(late
1800s) [Dan. kræsen,
Nor. kresen], nog så stor
(late 1800s)
[Dan. nok så stor,
Nor. nok så stor],
skötelös
(late 1800s)
[Dan. skødesløs,
Nor. skjødesløs],
spränglärd
(late 1800s)
[Dan. sprænglærd,
Nor. sprenglærd],
utbyte
(late 1800s)
[Dan. udbytte,
Nor. utbytte,
Ger. Ausbeute],
utslag
(late 1800s)
[Dan. udslag,
Nor. utslag], vansklig
(late 1800s)
[Dan. vanskelig,
Nor. vanskelig],
häler,
häleri
(c.1940)
[Dan. hæler, hæleri,
Nor. heler, heleri],
urövel
[Dan. urøvl,
Nor. urøvl];
c)
Norwegian to Swedish: slalom [slalåm], huldra (early
1800s) [hulder],
rabalder
(early 1890s) [rabalder],
samröre
(1895) [samrøre],
platinaräv
(1938) [platinarev],
luftled
(1956) [luftled];
drillflicka
[drilljente], korstryck [krysspress];
d)
Icelandic to Swedish: åtbörd (1600s) [atburður],
gladlynt
(1600s) [glaðlyndur],
snille
(1600s) [snill],
tima
(1600s) [tíma],
dräpa
(early 1800s) [drepa],
fylking
(early 1800s) [fylking],
id
(early 1800s) [íð]
mäla
(early 1800s) [mäla],
digna
[digna], fager
[fagur], flock [flokkur],
färna (Leuciscus
cephalus), gåta [gáta],
härja
[herja], ätt [ætt];
(fager,
mäla and ätt
may have been revived from OSwed. fagher,
mäla
and æt
respectively)
Section
3: Loans into Danish
a)
Swedish to Danish: ordsprog (1550:
ordsprock) [1526:
ordspråck,
modern Swedish ordspråk],
emne
(1700s)
[ämne], snille
(1700s)
[snille], nyfigen
(1700s) [nyfiken], omdømme
(about 1750) [omdöma],
sysselsætte
(1750s) [sysselsätta],
sysselsat
(after 1750)
[sysselsat], særskilt
(c.
1750) [särskilt],
nedbør
(c.1800) [nederbörd],
gøremål
(early 1800s) [goromål],
jævnbyrdig
(early 1800s) [jämbördig],
kropslig
(early 1800s) [kroppslig],
tyst
(early 1800s) [tyst],
farsot
(1860s) [farsot],
ihærdig
(1860) [ihärdig],
forenkle
(late 1800s) [förenkla],
indebære
(late 1800s) [innebära],
lynne
(late 1800s) [lynne],
en
saga blot (1800s)
[en saga blott],
givetvis
(1800s) [givetvis],
område
(1800s) [område], øde (1800s) [öde,
partly from German Öde], tændstik
(1870) [tändsticka], sprogforbistning
(1936) [språkförbistning], bh
(1952) [bh
< behå], ombudsmand (1953)
[ombudsman], oms (1960) [oms], moms (= merværdiomsætningsafgift)
[moms (1964) < mervärdesskat],
kendis (1969) [kändis], almenhed
[allmänhet], arbejdsformidling
[arbetsförmedling],
beslutsom
[beslutsam], brist [brist],
brydsom
[brydsam], drag
(in the senses
"feature", "trait" influenced by Swedish (and perhaps
Norwegian)) [drag],
finkulturel
[finkultur], folkeminde
[folkminne], for
tilfældet [för
tillfället], foretag
[företag], foretagsom
[företagsam], foreteelse
[företeelse],
foretræde
[företräda], fremgangsrig
[framgångsrik], fremstående [framstående],
fåfattig
[fåfattig], givende
[givande], godbid
[godbit],
grovkøkken
[grovkök], have utur
[ha utur], helt enkelt
[helt enkelt], hundredtal
[hundratal],
højlydt
[högljutt], indslag
(in the sense
"element") [inslag],
jordfæste
[jordfästa], kandidere
[kandidera], kompromisse
) [kompromissa],
kontorlandskab
[kontorslandskap,
from Ger. Bürolandschaft],
kønsrolle
[könsroll], lix
[lix], lægge bort titlerne
[lägga bort titlarna],
medgørlig
[medgörlig], mindesmærke
[minnesmärke], modsvare
[motsvara],
modsvarighed
) [motsvarighet], målsætning [målsättning],
odle
[odla],
opdele
[uppdela], polet
[pollett], pågå [pågå], på sæt og vis [på sätt och vis], påtagelig
[påtaglig], ret så
[rätt
så], råstærk
[råstark], selvskreven
[självskriven], sløjd [slöjd], socialstyrelse [socialstyrelse],
stilig
[stilig], tage
hånd om [ta
hand om], tidehverv
[tidevarv], tilgodese
[tillgodose], tilvalg
[tillval],
tilvalgsskole
[tillvalsskola],
trækspil
[dragspel], ømtålig,
ømtålelig
[ömtålig];
b)
Swedish or
Norwegian to Danish: færdes
(1800s)
[Swed. färdas,
Nor. ferdes],
godkende
(1800s) [Swed. godkänna,
Nor. godkjenne],
kælke
(1800s) [Swed. kälke,
Nor. kjelke], tålsom
(1800s) [Swed. tålsam,
Nor. tålsom], trivsel
(1800s) [Swed. trivsel,
Nor. trivsel], ødemark (1800s)
[Swed. ödemark,
Nor. ødemark],
helse
(late 1800s)
[Swed. hälsa,
Nor. helse], tiltag
(c. 1900) [Swed. tilltag,
Nor. tiltak], advokat
(1958) [Swed advokat,
Nor. advokat], major (1962) [Swed major,
Nor. major], el, elværk
[Swed. el, Nor.
el-, elverk], fikse [Swed. fixa, Nor. fikse], fly
[Swed. flyg,
Nor. fly],
glitre
(1800s) [Swed. glittra,
Nor. giltre], gubbe
[Swed. gubbe,
Nor. gubbe], jærv
[Swed. järv,
Nor. jerv],
letmælk
[Swed. lättmjölk,
Nor. lettmelk],
satse på
[Swed. satsa på,
Nor. satse på],
stilne
(c. 1860)
[Swed. stillna,
Nor. stilne];
c)
Norwegian to Danish: godlidende (1700s) [godlidende],
gåde
(1700s) [gåte],
fos
(1750) [foss],
fåmælt
(post 1814) [fåmælt],
greje
(post 1814) [greie],
tyvstarte
(post 1814) [tjuvstarte],
vidstirre
(post 1814), granvoksen
(early 1800s) [grannvoksen],
hyggelig
(early 1800s) [hyggelig],
hygge
(1800s)
[hygge],
klipfisk
(early 1800s) [klippfisk],
ren
(early 1800s) [rein],
skrøne
(1850-1899)
[Nyn. skrynja],
bagstræv
(late 1800s) [bakstrev],
fremover
(1800s)
[fremover],
hygge
(1800s) [hygge], selvsagt
(1800s) [selvsagt],
fravær
(1800s) [fravær],
livsløgn
[livsløgn
(1884)], nok så
(early
1900s) [nokså],
ordskifte (1900s)
[ordskifte, a
revival of ON orðaskipti],
hems
(1967)
[hems], flom [flom],
frysetøj
[frysetøy],
grætten
[gretten], gut
[gutt], ikke noget at samle på
[ikke noe å samle på],
landssvig
[landssvik], langrend
[lengrend],
li
[li], løjpe [løype],
med
én gang [med
en gang], målstræv
[målstrev],
nidstirre
[nidstirre], opgør [oppgjør], pejs [peis],
rabalder
(rabalder), restskat
[restskatt], selvhjulpen
[selvhjulpen], skattetræk
[skattetrekk],
slalom
[slalom], slutopgør
[check], sæter [seter], tjur [tiur,
descended from ON þiðurr],
trækprocent
[trekkprosent];
c)
ii)
Old Danish words revived through Norwegian influence:
nemme
[Nor. Nyn. neme,
ODan. nimmæ], nytte
[Nor. nytte,
ODan. nytæ], ræd
[Nor. redd, ON hræddr]
- these words were earlier ousted by MLG derived forms: lære, bruge
and bange;
d)
Old Danish
words revived: mæle [ODan. mælæ; the word was
revived during the period of
Romanticism from folksongs]
Section
4: Loans into Norwegian
a)
Swedish to Norwegian: anse [anse],
besviken
[besviken], brist [brist], digne [digna],
doldis [doldis],
foretak
[företag], forgubning
[förgubbning], forskingre [förskingra],
frekkis
[fräckis], giv [giv], gjøremål [göromål],
gubbe
[gubbe], jamlikhet
[jämlikhet],
jordfeste
[jordfästa], kinkig
[kinkig], kjendis
[kändis],
knark
[knark], kompis
[kompis],
kondis
[kondis], kul [kul], livat [livad],
jemte
[jämt], målsnøre
[målsnöre],
medviten
[medveten], odle [odla], odling [odling],
ombudsmann
[ombudsman], planere
[planera], samvit
[samvete],
socialstyrelse
[socialstyrelse],
spaning
[spänning], spenstig
[spänstig],
stilig
[stilig], tabbe [tabbe], tenåring [tonåring],
tiltak
[tilltag], uberoende
[oberoende], underfund
[underfund],
versting
[värsting], ågerhyre
[åkerhyra], åtgjerd
[åtgärd];
b)
Danish to Norwegian: egenkjærlighet (1740-90) [egenkærlighed],
omkrets
(1740-90) [omkreds],
sannsynlig
(1740-90) [sandsynlig],
selvbedrag
(1740-90) [selvbedrag],
valgspråk
(1740-90) [valgsprog],
virksomhet
(1740-90) [virksomhed],
dollarglis
(post 1945) [dollargrin],
knallert
(post 1945) [knallert],
gyser,
grøsser
[gyser], oms (1960s)
[oms], studine
[studine],
underlødig
[underlødig];
Section
5: Loans into Icelandic
See
my article on loans
and
neologisms in Icelandic.
a)
Danish to Icelandic: dragt
(1800s)
[dragt];
Section
6: Loans into Faroese
See
my article on loans
and
neologisms in Faroese.
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1996;
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A.: Dansk
i Tusind År. Et Omrids
af Sprogets Historie.
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Katlev,
Jan: Politikens Etymologisk Ordbog,
Politikens Forlag, København, 2000;
Landrø,
M.I. & Wangensteen, B. (red.): Bokmålsordboka.
Definisjons- og
rettskrivningsordbok, Universitetsforlaget, Oslo,
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Moen, P. & Pedersen, P-B.: Engelsk-norsk/Norsk-engelsk
Ordbok, Det Norske Samlaget, Oslo, 1998;
Munck-Nordentoft, A.: Nordiske
nabosprog, Gyldendal, København, 1981;
Nielsen, Niels Åge: Dansk
Etymologisk
Ordbog, København: Gyldendal, 1984;
Norsteds
stora
svensk-engelska ordbok,
Norstedts Förlag
AB,
Stockholm,
1993;
Politikens
Forlag: Politikens
Store Nye Nudansk Ordbog, Århus, 1998;
Ralph,
Bo: “Svenskt och
nordiskt”, pp. 71-95 of Allén, Sture (ed.): Arv och
lån i svenskan. Sju
uppsatser om ordförrådet i kulturströmmarnas perspektiv,
Nordsteds
Förlag AB, 1994.
Vikør,
Lars S.: The
Nordic Languages - Their Status and Interrelations,
Novus Forlag, Oslo,
1993;
Wessén, Elias: De nordiska språken,
6:e uppl. Stockholm, Almqvist & Wiksell, 1960;
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och ursprung, Esselte Studium, Uppsala, 1985.
©
Edward Smith 2011
