Version 1.0 (Updated: 28.1.23); Author: Edward Smith

Lost Old English Words And Their Cognates In Modern Germanic

Opening remarks/orientation

The purpose of this small article is to attempt to document some of the more conspicuous and interesting Old English words no longer extant in modern, standard English. That is, words which are now extinct, or else which now can only be found in the UK dialects, or in archaic language, or in set expressions or parts of other words. A further aim is to document some words which still exist in the standard language but whose meaning has significantly shifted over the intervening centuries.

These Old English words are then compared to cognates in modern Germanic languages, primarily German and Norwegian Bokmål, but others, too, including Dutch and Icelandic.

Note that this is an ongoing project and more words will be added as I collect them. Of the presumably many thousands of words which have been lost to English since Old English times, only a small selection can be considered here. Hopefully the reader will find the selection interesting and it will inspire them to further study.

In my view, the Old English words can be roughly divided into four different categories as follows:

1) Words which directly live on in the dialects or in archaic language

2) Words which have remnants or elements surviving in the modern, standard language but which are otherwise extinct

3) Words which still exist in modern standard English but whose meaning has changed significantly enough to make them remarkable

4) Words which have no obvious, direct descendants in the standard language as far as I can tell, or the dialects, but which have living cognates in other Germanic languages

To 1) above I would assign: [Nouns/adjectives/verbs]

ātorcoppe, āttor, bearm, bearn, burna, dæl, duguþ, ēam, ened, friþ, gēac, geweald, griþ, hindberge, holt, leax, lēoþ, lið, lof, more, nǣp, nefa, rǣd, scealc, stefn, stund, weald, wēn, wolcen.

earm, fremde, frōd, miċel, snel.

cwelan, cweþan, cȳþan, forlǣtan, frignan, gēotan, grēotan, hātan, hweorfan, lācan, segnian, spyrian, trūwian, þolian, þurfan, wēna, weorþan, wunian.

To 2) above I would assign: [Nouns/verbs]

gār, gebūr, geld, līc, mæġen, rīce, steort, wynn.

metan, weaxan.

To 3) above I would assign: [Nouns/adjectives/adverbs/preps/verbs]

ǣrende, bēam, beorg, burh, ċeorl, cnafa, cniht, dēor, dōm, feoh, fēond, flōd, ġebed, hægtesse, hærfest, lengten, mete, mōd, offrung, pīl, riht, tūn, þanc, wrecca, wyrm.

cwic, hāl, mōdig.

ēac, georne, siþþan.

būtan, wiþ.

bodian, brūcan, crafian, cunnan, fremman, fretan, ġieldan, mōtan, rǣdan, scēawian, scieppan, sellan, steorfan, wrecan, wyrcan.

To 4) above I would assign: [Nouns/adjectives/adverbs/preps/verbs]

ǣ, ǣled, æþelo, ār, āðexe, bēag, brȳd-hlōp, byrne, camp, cempa, cyrse, dēma, ēa, earfoþe, eorðberge, ernð, ēðel, feorh, frēa, gemāna, gīsel, hæf, hæleþ, hēahtīd, hearra, hengest, here, here-toga, hlæst, hwītlēac, hyġe, lāc, lēode, lyft, mǣl, mearg, mere-swīn, nīþ, nytt, ofermōd, ōfer, ondwlita, onsīen, orlege, sidu, sige, spic, suht, swamm, tīr, tungol, twēo, þearf, þēod, þēostru, ūht, wæl, wæstm, wearg, wēsten, wīgend, wīh.

æðele, andweard, ārlēas, blāc, dwǣs, ēadig, fela, fūs, gamol, gelīc, georn, ġeðyldig, hēah-mōd, lēof, mǣre, scyldig, sundorlic.

ā, samod, þā.

mid, ymb.

ārian, beorgan, bifian, būan, cierran, cȳpan, dihtan, drepan, dugan, fōn, ġebiddan, ġecēapian, grafan, hlȳdan, hreddan, hycgan, līðan, niman, onfōn, sprecan, stīgan, swīgian, tēon, þwēan.

**

Key to abbreviations:

(arch.) = archaic

(bibl.) = Biblical

(Dan.) = Danish

(dial.) = dialectal

(Du.) = Dutch

(Far.) = Faroese

(Flem.) = Flemish

(Ice.) = modern Icelandic

(Lat.) = Latin

(modE) = modern (UK) English

(obs.) = obsolete

(Plattdt.) = Plattdeutsch

(Swe.) = Swedish

**

1) Nouns

Old English	German	Norwegian	Other Gmic. langs
ǣ “law”	Ehe “marriage”	--
ǣled "fire, flame"	--	eld "fire, flame"	eldur (Ice.) “fire”
ǣrende “message; task; news” (modE “errand”)	--	ærend “errand, mission”	erindi (Ice.) “errand; message”
æþelo “origin, descent, noble lineage”	Adel “nobility, aristocracy”	adel “nobility”	aðall (Ice.) “nobility, aristocracy”; adel (Du.) “nobility, aristocracy”
ār “honour, mercy, favour, prosperity”	Ehre “honour, glory”	ære “honour, glory, credit”	eer (Du.) “honour”
ātorcoppe “spider” (modE (dial.) "attercop")	--	edderkopp “spider”	--
āttor “venom” (modE (Scots) “atter”)	Eiter “pus”	eiter “venom”	eitur (Ice.) “poison”; etter (Du.) “pus”
āðexe "lizard, newt"	Eidechse "lizard"	--
bēag “ring”	--	--	baugur (Ice.) “circle, ring”
bēam "tree; cross" (modE “beam”)	Baum "tree"	--	boom (Du.) "tree"
bearm “bosom, lap” (modE (obs./dial.) “barm”)	--	barm “bosom, breast”	barmur (Ice.) “bosom”
bearn "child" (modE (Scots) "bairn")	--	barn "child"	barn (Dan./Swe./Far./Ice.) "child"
beorg "hill" (modE “barrow”)	Berg "mountain, hill"	berg "mountain, hill"	bjarg (Ice.) “cliff”; berg (Du.) “mountain”
besma “broom” (modE “besom”)	Besen “broom; whisk”	--	bezem (Du.) “broom”
brȳd-hlōp "marriage, bridal"	Brautlauf “wedding”	bryllup "wedding"	bruiloft (Du.) “wedding”
burh "fortress, castle" (modE “borough”)	Burg "castle"	borg "castle"	borg (Ice.) “town; castle”; burcht (Du.) “castle, citadel”
burna, brunna "well; brook, water" (modE (Scots/dial.) "burn")	Born “spring”, Brunnen “well, spring”	brønn "well"	brunnur (Ice.) “well, spring”; bron (Du.) “well, spring”
byrne “mailcoat”	Brünne “mailcoat”	brynje “mailcoat”	brynja (Ice.) “mailcoat”
camp "war, battle"	Kampf "battle, fight"	kamp "battle, fight, struggle"	kamp (Du.) “war, strife” (formal)
cāwel “cabbage” (modE “cole”)	Kohl “cabbage”	kål “cabbage”	kál (Ice.) “cabbage”; kool (Du.) “cabbage”
cempa "warrior, soldier"	Kämpfer "warrior"	--	kempa (Ice.) “hero, warrior”
ċeorl “husband, freeman, man” (modE “churl”)	Kerl "guy, chap"	kar “man; guy; real man; servant”	kerel (Du.) “guy, chap”; karl (Ice.) “man, old man, husband”
cnafa "boy, lad, male servant" (modE "knave")	Knabe "boy, lad"	--
cnapa "boy, youth, servant" (related to cnafa above)	Knappe "squire"	--	knaap (Du.) "boy, lad"
cniht “youth, warrior; servant” (modE “knight”)	Knecht "servant, slave"	--	knecht (Du.) “servant; farmhand”
cwēne "woman, wife; queen; harlot" (modE (Scots) "quine": girl; modE “quean”: harlot, (Scots) girl, unmarried woman)	--	kvinne "woman, wife", kone "wife; old woman"	kvinna (Swe.) "woman"; kona (Ice.) "woman, wife"; kone (Dan.) "woman, wife"
cyrse “cherry”	Kirsche “cherry”	kirsebær “cherry”	kirsuber (Ice.) “cherry”; kers (Du.) “cherry”
dæl "valley" (modE (dial.) "dale")	Tal "valley"	dal "valley"	dalur (Ice.) “valley”; dal (Du.) “valley”
dēma “judge”	--	dommer “judge”	dómari (Ice.) “judge”
dēor "animal" (modE "deer")	Tier "animal"	dyr "animal"	dýr (Ice.) “animal”; dier (Du.) “animal”
dōm “judgement” (modE "doom")	--	dom “judgement, sentence”	dómur (Ice.) “judgement, sentence”
dryhten "lord, ruler; Lord God" (modE "drighten")	--	drotten (arch.) “king, prince”	drottinn (Ice.) "God; lord, master"; (cf. drottning (Swe.) "queen")
duguþ “seasoned retainers, mature men” (modE (obs./dial.) “douth”)	cf. taugen “suit, be good”, tüchtig “capable”, Tugend “virtue”	cf. duge “be good (for), be fit”	cf. duga (Ice.) “suffice, be fit”; cf. deugd (Du) “virtue , merit”, deugen (Du.) “be good for”
ēa “river”	--	å “creek, stream”	á (Ice.) “river, stream”
ēam “maternal uncle” (modE (dial.) “eam”)	Oheim (arch.) "uncle"	--	oom (Du.) “uncle”
earfoþe “work, hardship”	Arbeit “work, labour”	arbeid “work”	arbeid (Du.) “work”
earn "eagle" (modE “erne”)	Aar “eagle”	ørn “eagle”	örn (Ice.) "eagle"; arend (Du.) “eagle”
ened "duck" (modE (dial.) “ennet”)	Ente "duck"	and "duck"	eend (Du.) “duck”; önd (Ice.) “duck”
eorðberge “strawberry”	Erdbeere “strawberry”	jordbær “strawberry”	jarðarber (Ice.) “strawberry”; aardbei (Du.) “strawberry”
ernð “crop”	Ernte “crop”	--	--
ēðel "property, inheritance; country, realm"	--	odel "property held under the allodial system"	oðal (Ice.) “estate”
fær "journey" (modE “fare”)	Fahrt "journey; speed"	ferd “journey”; fart “speed; motion”	för (Ice.) “journey, trip”; vaart (Du.) “speed”
feoh "cattle; property, riches" (modE “fee”)	Vieh "cattle"	får "sheep"	fé (Ice.) “sheep; money”; vee (Du.) “cattle”
fēond "enemy" (modE “fiend”)	Feind "enemy"	fiende "enemy, foe"	fjandi (Ice.) “devil; enemy”; vijand (Du.) “enemy”
feorh “life, soul”	--	--	fjör (Ice.) “life; vigour”
flōd "running water, river" (modE “flood”)	Flut “high tide, flood”; Fluß "river"	flod (arch.) "river"	flóð (Ice.) “high tide, flood”; vloed (Du.) “high tide, flood tide”
frēa “lord, king; God”	cf. Frau “woman, wife”	cf. fru “wife”	cf. frú (Ice.) “married woman”; cf. vrouw (Du.) “woman, wife”
friþ "peace" (modE (arch.) “frith”)	Friede "peace"	fred "peace"	friður (Ice.) “peace”; vrede (Du.) “peace”
fugol "bird" (modE "fowl")	Vogel "bird"	fugl "bird"	fugl (Ice.) “bird”; vogel (Du.) “bird”
gār "spear" (in modE “garlic”)	--	--	geir (Nynorsk)(arch.) "spear"
gēac "cuckoo" (modE (dial.) “yeke”)	Gauch (arch.) "cuckoo"	--	gaukur (Ice.) “cuckoo”
ġebed "prayer" (modE “bead”)	Gebet "prayer"	--	gebed (Du.) "prayer"
gebūr "farmer, dweller" (in modE “neighbour”)	Bauer "farmer, peasant"	--	boer (Du.) "farmer", buur (Du.) “neighbour”
gemāna “common property”	Gemeinbesitz “common property”	gemen “common, public”	gemeen (Du.) “common, collective”
geweald "power, strength, might" (modE (dial.) “wald”)	Gewalt "power; force"	velde "might, power; majesty"	vald (Ice.) “power, force”; geweld (Du.) “violence, force”
gild/geld "a payment of money, tribute" (NB: "Danegeld" does not appear until 1086)	Geld "money"	--	geld (Du.) “money”
gīsel "hostage; pledge"	Geisel "hostage"	gissel "hostage"	gísl (Ice.) “hostage”; gijzelaar (Du.) “hostage”
griþ “truce” (modE (obs.) “grith”)	--	grid “protection; mercy, pardon”	grið (Ice.) “truce; mercy”
hæf "ocean"	Haff "lagoon"	hav "sea"	haf (Ice.) “sea, ocean”
hægtesse "witch" (modE "hag")	Hexe "witch"	hekse "witch"	heks (Du.) “witch”
hæleþ "hero"	Held "hero"	helt "hero"	held (Du.) “hero”
hærfest "autumn" (modE "harvest")	Herbst "autumn"	høst "autumn"	haust (Ice.) “autumn”; herfst (Du.) “autumn”
hēahtīd "festival, solemnity"	Hochzeit "wedding"	høytid "festival, feast"	hátíð (Ice.) “feast, festival; holiday”
hearra "lord"	Herr "mister, gentleman, master"	herre "mister, gentleman, master"	herra (Ice.) “lord, master; mister”; heer (Du.) “mister; lord, master”
hengest "horse, steed"	Hengst "stallion"	hingst "stallion"	hestur (Ice.) “horse”; hengst (Du.) “stallion”
here "army"	Heer "army"	hær "army"	her (Ice.) “army, military”; heer (Du. ( arch.)) “army, host”
here-toga "leader, general, duke"	Herzog "duke"	hertug "duke"	hertogi (Ice.) “duke”; hertog (Du.) “duke”
hindberge “raspberry” (modE (obs./dial.) “hindberry”)	Himbeere “raspberry”	--	hindber (Ice.) “raspberry”
hlæst “burden, load”	Last “load, burden”	last “load, burden”	hlass (Ice.) “load”; last (Du.) “load, burden”
hlēow "shelter, protection" (modE “lee”)	Lee “lee”	ly "cover, shelter"	hlé (Ice.) “shelter”; lij (Du.) “lee”
hof "farm, enclosure, dwelling, house; shrine" (modE "hovel")	Hof "court; yard, farmyard"	hoff "court" (hov "heathen temple")	hof (Ice.) “temple”; hof (Du.) “court of law; royal household”
holt "holt (arch.), wood, copse"	Holz "wood, timber"	holt "grove, copse"	hout (Du.) “wood”
hwītlēac “onion”	--	hvitløk “garlic”	--
hȳd "skin" (modE "hide")	Haut "skin"	hud "skin"	huid (Du.) “skin; hide”
hyġe “mind, heart, courage”	--	hug “mind, heart, soul”	geheugen (Du.) “memory”; hugur (Ice.) “mind, thought, heart”
lāc “play; sacrifice, offering”	--	leik “play, game”	leikur (Ice.) “play, game”
lǣce “leech; doctor"	--	lege "doctor"	læknir (Ice.) “doctor”
lār “teaching” (modE “lore”)	Lehre “teaching, doctrine”	lære “teaching, doctrine, lesson”	leer (Du.) “doctrine, teaching”
lēac "leek; onion"	Lauch "leek"	løk "onion"	laukur (Ice.) “onion”; (cf. look (Flem.) “garlic”)
leax "salmon" (modE (Scots/dial.) "lax")	Lachs "salmon"	laks "salmon"	lax (Ice.) “salmon”
lengten “spring; fasting time” (modE “Lent”)	Lenz “spring(time)” (poet.)		lente (Du.) “spring”
lēode "folk, people"	Leute "people"	--	Lüüd (Plattdt.) "people"; lýður (Ice.) “people”; lui (Du.) “people, folk”, lieden (Flem.) “people, folk”
lēoþ “song, poem” (modE (Scots/dial.) "leed")	Lied “song”	--	ljóð (Ice.) “poem”; lied (Du.) “song”
līc(hama) "body, corpse" (cf. modE lyke-wake, lychgate)	Leiche, Leichnam "corpse"	lik "corpse"	lichaam (Du.) "body", lijk (Du.) "corpse"; lekamen (Swe.) "body"; lík (Ice.) “corpse”
lið "joint; limb" (modE (obs./dial.) “lith”)	Glied "limb"	ledd "joint, link"	liður (Ice.) “joint”; lid (Du.) “limb”
lof “praise” (modE (Scots/dial.) "lofe")	Lob “praise”	lov “praise; reputation”	lof (Ice.) “praise”; lof (Du.) “praise”
lyft “air, sky”	Luft “air”	luft “air”	loft (Ice.) “air, sky”; lucht (Du.) “air, sky”
mæġen “strength, power, army” (modE "might and main")	--	--	megn (Ice.) “strength”
mægð “girl; woman, wife” (modE “maid(en))”	Magd "maid"; (Mädchen “girl” (< Mägdchen))	møy (arch.) “maid, maiden, virgin”	maagd (Du.) “virgin”
mǣl "speech, talk, conversation"	--	mål "language, speech, voice"	mál (Ice.) “language, speech, talk”
mearg “pork sausage”	--	--	mor (Nynorsk) “sausage”; marig (Fering) “sausage”
melu “flour” (modE "meal")	Mehl “flour, meal”	mel “flour, meal”	mjöl (Ice.) “flour”; meel (Du.) “flour”
mere "sea; lake, pool" (modE "mere")	Meer "sea"	--	meer (Du.) “lake”
mere-swīn "dolphin"	--	--	meerzwijn (Du.) "harbour porpoise"
mete "food" (modE "meat")	--	mat "food"	matur (Ice.) “food”
mōd “spirit, courage, mind” (modE “mood”)	Mut “courage, heart”	mot “courage, pluck”	moed (Du.) “courage, heart”
more “carrot, parsnip” (modE (obs.) "more")	Möhre “carrot”	--	--
nǣp “turnip” (modE (Scots/dial.) "neep")	--	nepe “turnip”	næpa (Ice.) “turnip”
nēat “farm animal, livestock” (modE "neat")	--	naut “cow, ox”	naut (Ice.) “bull”
nefa “grandson, nephew” (modE (obs.) “neve”)	Neffe "nephew"	nevø "nephew"	neef (Du.) "nephew"
nīþ “hatred, malice, trouble”	Neid “envy”	nid “envy, malice”	níð (Ice.) “libel”; nijd (Du.) “envy, jealousy”
nytt “use”	Nutzen “use”	nytte “use, benefit”	nýting (Ice.) “use”; nut (Du.) “use, benefit”
ofermōd "pride, arrogance"	Übermut "arrogance"	overmot "arrogance"	overmoed (Du.) “overconfidence” (cf. hoogmoed (Du.) “pride”)
ōfer “shore, coast”	Ufer “shore, coast”	--	oever (Du.) “bank, shore”
offrung "sacrifice"	Opfer "sacrifice"	offer "sacrifice"	offer (Du.) “offering, sacrifice”
ondwlita "face"	Antlitz "face, visage"	--	anlete (Swe.) "visage, countenance"; andlit (Ice.) “face”
onsīen "face"	Angesicht "face, countenance"	ansikt "face"	aangezicht (Du.) "face", aanzien (Du.) “look, appearance”
orlege "war, strife"	--	(cf. til orlogs “in naval service”)	oorlog (Du.) "war"
pīl "spear, javelin" (modE “pile”) < Lat. pīlum	Pfeil "arrow"	pil "arrow"	píla (Ice.) “arrow, dart”; pijl (Du.) “arrow”
rǣd “advice, counsel” (modE (obs.) “rede”)	Rat “advice”	råd “advice, counsel”	ráð (Ice.) “advice”; raad (Du.) “advice”
rīce "kingdom" (in modE “bishopric”)	Reich "empire"	rike "kingdom, empire"	ríki (Ice.) “realm, kingdom”; rijk (Du.) “realm, kingdom”
riht “law, justice” (modE "right")	Recht “law, justice, right”	rett “justice, law”	recht (Du.) “justice, law”
scealc “man, warrior” (modE (obs./dial.) “shalk”)	Schalk “joker, rogue”	skalk “rogue, scoundrel”	skálkur (Ice.) “rogue, rascal”
sidu "custom"	Sitte "custom, practice"	--	siður (Ice.) “custom”
sige "victory"	Sieg "victory"	seier "victory"	sigur (Ice.) “victory”; zege (Du.) “victory”
sorg “care, grief, trouble” (modE "sorrow")	Sorge “worry, care, trouble”	sorg “grief, mourning; care, worry”	sorg (Ice.) “grief, mourning”; zorg (Du.) “concern, worry”
spic "bacon, lard"	Speck "bacon"	spekk "blubber, fat"	spek (Du.) “bacon”
stefn "voice" (modE (obs./dial.) “steven”)	Stimme "voice"	stemme "voice"	stem (Du.) “voice”
steort "tail" (now only in “redstart”)	Sterz “parson’s nose”	stjert "bird's tail"	staart (Du.) "tail"
stund “hour, period, time” (modE (obs./dial.) “stound”)	Stunde “hour, time”	stund “moment, while, time”	stund (Ice.) “hour, time”
suht "illness"	Sucht "addiction"	sott "disease, sickness, pest"	sótt (Ice.) “illness”; (cf. zucht (Du.) “desire, longing”)
swamm "fungus, mushroom; sponge"	Schwamm “fungus”	svamp “sponge”	svamp (Swe.) "mushroom"; zwam (Du.) "fungus, mushroom"
tīr “glory, fame; ornament”	Zier “adornment; virtue”	--	tire (Nynorsk) “gleam, sparkle”
trēow “faith, trust, loyalty ” (modE "truce")	Treue “loyalty”	tru “belief, faith; trust”	trú (Ice.) “trust, faith, religion”; trouw (Du.) “loyalty, faith”
tūn “yard; farm; dwelling; village” (modE “town, -ton”)	Zaun “fence, hedge”	--	tuin (Du.) “garden”
tungol "star, celestial body"	--	--	tungl (Ice.) "moon"
twēo “doubt, uncertainty”	Zweifel “doubt”	tvil “doubt”	twijfel (Du.) “doubt”
þanc “thought, mind” (modE "thank")	Gedanke “thought, idea”	tanke “thought”	þanki (Ice.) “thought, idea”; gedachte (Du.) “thought”
þearf “need, want”	Bedarf “need; demand”	--	þörf (Ice.) “need”
þeġn “thane, nobleman, retainer, warrior”	Degen “thane, warrior, hero”	--	þegn (Ice.) “subject; citizen”
þēod “people, nation”	Deutsch “German”	tysk “German”	þjóð (Ice.) “nation, people”; Duits (Du.) “German”
þēostru “darkness, gloom”	düster “dark, gloomy”	--	duister (Du.) “darkness”
ūht “period right before dawn”			ochtend (Du.) “morning”
unweder “bad weather, storm” (modE “unweather”)	Unwetter “storm”	uvær “bad weather, storm”	óveður (Ice.) “storm”; onweer (Du.) “thunderstorm”
wæl “slaughter, carnage”	(cf. Walküre “Valkyrie”)	val “fallen warriors; field of battle”	valur (Ice.) “the fallen, casualties of a battle”
wæstm “growth, plant, fruit”	Wachstum “growth”	vekst “growth; plant”	(cf. vöxtur (Ice.) “growth”); gewas (Du.) “plant”, wasdom (Du.) “growth”
weald "forest" (modE (arch./lit.) “wold, weald”)	Wald "forest"	--	woud (Du.) “wood”
weard "protector" (modE “ward”)	Wärter "guard", Wart “attendant”	--	vord (Nynorsk) "watchman"; vörður (Ice.) “guard”
wearg "wolf; outlaw"	--	--	varg (Swe.) "wolf"
wēn “expectation, hope, belief” (modE (arch.) “ween”)	Wahn “delusion”	von “expectation, hope”	von (Ice.) “expectation, hope”
wēsten “desert”	Wüste “desert”	--	woestijn (Du.) “desert”
wīgend "warrior"	--	--	wijgand (Du.) "warrior"
wīh "heathen shrine, temple; idol"	Weihnachten "Christmas"	(cf. vie “consecrate, ordain”)	(cf. vígja (Ice.) “consecrate”; wijden (Du.) “consecrate, ordain”)
wiht “creature, being” (modE “wight”)	Wicht “gnome, goblin, sprite”		wicht (Du.) “child; foolish girl”
wīse “manner, way” (modE "wise")	Weise “way, manner”	vis “way, manner”	wijs (Du.) “way, manner”
wolcen "cloud" (modE (poet.) "welkin": sky, heaven )	Wolke "cloud"	--	wolk (Du.) "cloud"
wrecca “wanderer, exile” (modE “wretch”)	Recke “warrior”		(cf. Ice. reika “wander, roam”)
wynn “joy, rapture, delight” (cf. modE “winsome”)	Wonne “bliss, joy”	--
wyrm "serpent, snake, dragon" (modE “worm”)	Wurm “worm”	orm "snake, serpent"	orm (Swe.) "snake"; ormur (Ice.) “worm; snake”; worm (Du.) “worm”
wyrt “herb, plant, vegetable” (modE “wort”)	Wurzel “root” (cf. Gewürz “spice”)	urt “herb” (also “plant” (arch.))	urt (Ice.) “plant”; wortel (Du.) “root”

2) Adjectives

Old English	German	Norwegian	Other Gmic. langs
æðele "noble"	edel "noble, precious", adlig “noble”	edel "noble”	eðal- (Ice.) “noble-”; edel (Du.) “noble”
andweard “present”	gegenwärtig “present, current”	--	tegenwoordig (Du.) “present, current”
ānfeald “simple” (modE “onefold”)	einfältig “simple”	enfoldig “innocent; simple”	eenvoudig (Du.) “simple”; einfaldur (Ice.) “easy, simple”
ārlēas “dishonourable, base”	ehrlos “dishonourable”	æreløs “dishonourable”	eerloos (Du.) “dishonourable”
blāc “pale”	bleich “pale”	blek “pale”	bleikur (Ice.) “pink; pale”; bleek (Du.) “pale”
cwic “alive” (modE “quick”)	--	kvikk “alert; quick; mobile; alive (arch.)”	kvikur (Ice.) “alive; agile”; kwiek (Du.) “alert, spry”
dwǣs “foolish, stupid”	--	--	dwaas (Du.) "foolish, stupid"
ēadig “blessed, happy”			auðigur (Ice.) “rich”
earm "poor" (modE (Scots) "arm")	arm "poor"	arm "poor, miserable"	arm (Du.) “poor, wretched”
fela “many”	viel “a lot of, much”, viele “many”		veel (Du.) “much, many, a lot”
fremde "foreign, strange" (modE (dial.) “fremd”)	fremd "foreign, alien, strange"	fremmed "foreign, alien, strange"	framandi (Ice.) “alien, strange”; vreemd (Du.) “strange, foreign”
frōd “wise” (modE (dial.) "frood")	--	frod (arch.) “learned, well-informed”	fróður (Ice.) “learned, well-read”
fūs “eager, willing; brave”	--	fus “eager, keen”	fús (Ice.) “eager, ready and willing”
gamol “old, grey”	--	gammel “old, ancient”	gammal (Ice.) “old, ancient”; (cf. gammel (Du.) “rickety; shaky”)
gelīc "alike, similar, equal"	gleich "same, equal"	--	gelijk (Du.) “equal, same”
gēomor “sad” (cf. modE "yammer")	Jammer “misery; wailing”	jammer “wailing, misery”	jammer (Du.) “a shame, a pity”
georn “eager”	gerne “willingly, with pleasure”	gjerne “gladly, willingly”	gjarna (Ice.) “gladly, readily”; gaarne (Du., formal) “gladly, with pleasure”
ġeðyldig “patient”	geduldig “patient”	--	geduldig (Du.) “patient”
hāl “safe, unhurt” (modE "hale, whole")	heil “unhurt, intact”	hel “whole”	heill (Ice.) “healthy, undamaged, whole”; heel (Du.) “whole, intact”
hēah-mōd "proud, haughty"	hochmütig "arrogant, proud"	høymodig "high-minded, noble"	hoogmoedig (Du.) “proud, haughty”
lēof "dear, beloved"	lieb "dear, beloved"	--	lief (Du.) "dear, beloved; sweet, nice"; ljuv (Nynorsk) “dear, beloved”
mǣre "renowned"	Märchen "fairy tale, story"	--	(cf. mare (Du.) “news, rumour”, vermaard (Du.) “renowned, famous”)
miċel “great, large, much” (modE (Scots) "mickle, muckle")	--	mye “much, a lot”	mikill (Ice.) “large, big, great; much”
mōdig "high-spirited; brave" (modE “moody”)	mutig "courageous"	modig "brave, courageous"	moedig (Du.) "brave"
scyldig “guilty, criminal”	schuldig “guilty”	skyldig “guilty; due”	schuldig (Du.) “guilty”
snel “rapid, keen, bold” (modE (Scots) "snell")	schnell “quick, rapid”	snill “well-behaved; nice”	snjall (Ice.) “excellent, clever”; snel (Du.) “quick, fast”
sundorlic “special”	Sonder-, besondere “special”	--	bijzonder (Du.) “special”

3) Adverbs

Old English	German	Norwegian	Other Gmic. langs
ā “always, ever”	--	--	æ (Ice.) “always”; ooit (Du.) “ever”
ǣrest “first, at first” (modE "erst")	erst	--	eerst (Du.) “first”
ēac "also" (modE “eke”)	auch "also"	og "and"	ook (Du.) “also”; og (Ice.) "and", auk (Ice.) “in addition to”
georne “eagerly, gladly” (modE "yearn")	gerne “willingly, with pleasure”	gjerne “gladly, willingly”	gjarna (Ice.) “gladly, readily”; gaarne (Du., formal) “gladly, with pleasure”
samod “together, too, at the same time”	samt “together with”, zusammen “together”	samt “in addition to, together with”, sammen “together”	saman (Ice.) “together”; samen (Du.) “together”
siþþan “since, afterwards, later” (modE "since")	seit “since”	siden “since; afterwards, later”	síðan (Ice.) “then; since”
þā “then, when”	da “then; when”	da “then; when; since”	þá (Ice.) “then”

4) Prepositions and other parts of speech

Old English	German	Norwegian	Other Gmic. langs
būtan “without, except” (modE "but")	--	--	buiten (Du.) “outside; without”
mid "with"	mit "with"	med "with"	með (Ice.) "with"; met (Du.) “with”
wiþ “against, from, with”	--	ved “at, by, with”	við (Ice.) “at, by, with”
ymb "about, concerning"	um "around, about"	om "about"	um (Ice.) “about, concerning”; om (Du.) “about, around”

5) Verbs

Old English	German	Norwegian	Other Gmic. langs
ārian "honour"	ehren "honour"	ære "honour"	eren (Du.) “honour”
bēodan "offer; command" (modE "bid" (auction))	bieten "offer"	by “command, bid; offer”	bjóða (Ice.) “offer; ask; command”; bieden (Du.) “offer, bid”
beorgan “save, protect”	bergen “save, salvage”	berge “rescue, save”	bjarga (Ice.) “save, rescue”; bergen (Du.) “rescue, save, salvage”
besprecan "speak about, mention" (modE "bespeak")	besprechen "discuss, talk about"	--	bespreken (Du.) "discuss"
bīdan “stay, remain, wait for” (modE "bide")	--	bie “wait”	bíða (Ice.) “wait”; beiden (Du.) “bide, wait for”
biddan "ask, entreat, pray, beseech; order; beg" (modE “bid”)	bitten "ask, beg, pray"	be “ask; pray”	biðja (Ice.) “ask, pray”; bidden (Du.) “implore; pray”
bifian "tremble"	beben "tremble, shake"	--	beven (Du.) "tremble"
bodian “preach, tell” (modE "bode”)	--	--	boða (Ice.) “preach, proclaim”
brūcan "use, enjoy" (modE “brook”)	brauchen "need; use"	bruke "use, consume"	brúka (Ice.) “use”; gebruiken (Du.) “use”
būan “dwell”	bauen “build”	bu “live, dwell”	búa (Ice.) “live; farm; prepare”; bouwen (Du.) “build”
cierran “turn, change”	kehren “turn”	kjøre “drive, travel”	keyra (Ice.) “drive”; keren (Du.) “turn (around)”
crafian "ask, implore, demand" (modE "crave")	--	kreve "demand; require"	krefja (Ice.) “demand”
cunnan “know, know how” (modE "can")	können “be able to”, kennen “know, be acquainted with”	kunne “be able to; know”	kunna (Ice.) “know (how), be able to”; kunnen (Du.) “be able to, can”
cwelan "die" (modE (dial.) “queal”)	quälen "torment"	--	kwellen (Du.) “hurt, torment”
cweþan "say" (modE (arch.) "quoth")	--	kvede "chant, sing"	kveða (Ice.) “say; chant”
cȳpan "sell"	kaufen "buy" (verkaufen = sell)	kjøpe "buy"	kaupa (Ice.) “buy”; kopen (Du.) “buy”
cȳþan “make known, inform” (modE (Scots) "kithe")	künden “announce, proclaim”		kynna (Ice.) “make known”; (cf. aankondigen (Du.) “announce”)
dǣlan "divide, separate, distribute" (modE "deal, dole")	teilen "divide; share (out)"	dele "divide, partition, share out"	deila (Ice.) “divide”; delen (Du.) “divide, share”
dihtan "arrange, appoint; compose"	dichten "write, compose"	dikte "compose, write"	dichten (Du.) “write poetry”
drepan "strike, hit; slay"	treffen "meet; strike"	drepe "kill, slay", treffe "meet; strike"	drepa (Ice.) “kill”; treffen (Du.) “hit, strike; meet”
dugan “be of use”	taugen “suit; be good for”	duge “be fit, suitable”	duga (Ice.) “suffice; be suitable”; deugen (Du.) “be good for”
faran “go, travel” (modE "fare")	fahren “go, sail, move”	fare “go, travel”	fara (Ice.) “go, move, travel”; varen (Du.) “sail”
fōn “catch, seize”	fangen “catch”	fange “capture, trap”	fanga (Ice.) “capture, seize”; vangen (Du.) “catch, capture”
forlǣtan "forsake, omit, neglect" (modE (dial.) “forlet”)	verlassen "leave, exit"	forlate "leave, abandon"	verlaten (Du.) “leave, abandon”
fremman "do; advance, promote" (modE "frame")	--	fremme "promote, advance"
fretan "devour" (modE "fret")	fressen "eat" (used mainly of animals)	--	vreten (Du.) “feed; eat, devour” (used of animals)
frignan "ask" (modE (dial.) “frain”)	fragen "ask"	--	fråga (Swe.) "ask"; vragen (Du.) “ask”
ġebiddan "pray, ask, worship"	beten "pray"	be "pray; implore"	biðja (Ice.) “ask, pray”; bidden (Du.) “pray; implore”
ġecēapian “buy”	kaufen “buy”	kjøpe “buy”	kaupa (Ice.) “buy”; kopen (Du.) “buy”
gēotan "pour" (modE (dial.) “yet”)	gießen "pour"	gyte "pour"	gieten (Du.) “pour”
ġieldan “pay” (modE "yield")	gelten “be valid, count”	gjelde “be worth; be valid, apply”	gjalda (Ice.) “pay”; gelden (Du.) “be valid, count, apply”
grafan "dig"	graben "dig"	grave "dig"	grafa (Ice.) “dig”; graven (Du.) “dig”
grēotan "weep" (modE (Scots) "greet")	--	gråte "cry, weep"	gráta (Ice.) “weep”
hātan “be called; command” (modE (arch.) “hight”)	heißen “be called; call; bid”	hete “be called”	heita (Ice.) “be called”; heten (Du.) “be called; bid”
hlȳdan "make a noise"	läuten "ring, chime, sound"	lyde, ljode "sound"	(cf. Ice. hljóð “sound”); luiden (Du.) “sound, ring”
hreddan "save, liberate"	retten "save, rescue"	redde "save, rescue"	redden (Du.) “save, salvage”
hweorfan “turn” (modE (Scots) "hwarve")	--	kverve “swirl, swing”	hverfa (Ice.) “turn”
hycgan “think, plan”	--	huske “remember”	hyggja (Ice.) “think, believe”
lācan “play; fight” (modE (dial.) “lake”)	--	leke “play”	leika (Ice.) “play, act”
līðan "to suffer loss"	leiden "suffer"	lide "suffer"	líða (Ice.) "tolerate, endure, suffer"; lijden (Du.) “suffer”
metan “measure” (modE “mete out”)	messen “measure”	--	meten (Du.) “measure”
mōtan “be allowed, be able; must” (modE "must")	müssen “have to”	måtte “have to, must”	moeten (Du.) “have to, must”
niman "take"	nehmen "take"	--	nemen (Du.) “take”
onfōn “receive, accept”	empfangen “receive”	--	ontvangen (Du.) “receive”
rǣdan "counsel, give advice" (modE “read”)	raten "advise"	råde, rå "advise, counsel"	ráða (Ice.) “advise”; aanraden (Du.) “advise”
rēocan “smoke, steam; stink” (modE "reek")	rauchen “smoke”, riechen “smell”	røyke “smoke”	reykja (Ice.) “smoke”; rieken (Du.) “smell, reek”, roken “smoke”
scēawian "look at" (modE “show”)	schauen "look"	--	beschouwen (Du.) “consider”
sceþþan “injure, crush” (modE “scathe”)	schaden “damage, harm”	ska “damage, hurt, injure”	skaða (Ice.) “damage, hurt, injure”; (cf. beschadigen (Du.) “damage”)
scieppan “create” (> modE “shape”)	schöpfen “create”	skape “create, make”	skapa (Ice.) “create”; scheppen (Du.) “create”
sculan “be obliged to, must” (modE "shall")	sollen “shall”	skulle “shall, will”	skulu (Ice.) “shall, must, will”; zullen (Du.) “shall, will”
segnian "bless, consecrate" (modE (arch./obs.) "sain")	segnen "bless"	signe "consecrate, bless"	zegenen (Du.) “bless”
sellan “give” (modE "sell")	--	--	selja (Ice.) “sell; hand over”
sprecan “speak”	sprechen “speak”	språk “language, speech”	spreken (Du.) “speak, talk”
spyrian "ask; track down; explore" (modE (Scots) "speir" : ask after)	aufspüren “track down”	spørre "ask"	spyrja (Ice.) “ask”; opsporen (Du.) “track, hunt down”
steorfan "die" (modE "starve")	sterben "die"	--	sterven (Du.) “die”
stīgan "climb"	steigen "climb"	stige "climb, rise"	stíga (Ice.) “rise, increase”; stijgen (Du.) “rise, climb; increase”
swīgian "be silent"	schweigen "be silent"	--	zwijgen (Du.) “be silent”
tēon “draw, drag”	ziehen “pull, draw”	--
trūwian "trust, confide" (modE (arch./dial.) "trow")	trauen "trust"	tru "believe; trust"	trúa (Ice.) “believe; trust”; vertrouwen (Du.) “trust”
þolian "suffer, bear, endure" (modE (Scots/dial.) "thole")	dulden "endure, suffer" (note also: Dulden "suffering", Geduld "patience, endurance")	--	tole/tola (Nynorsk) "endure"; þola (Ice.) "bear, tolerate, endure"; dulden (Du.) "bear, tolerate, endure"
þurfan “need, must” (modE (Scots/dial.) "thair")	bedürfen “need”	--	þurfa (Ice.) “need, require”
þwēan "wash"	--	--	två (Swe.) "wash"; två (Nynorsk) "wash"; þvo (Ice.) “wash”
weaxan "grow" (in "wax and wane” and “wax lyrical")	wachsen "grow"	vokse "grow"	vaxa (Ice.) “grow, increase”; wassen (Du.) “grow”
wēnan "hope, fancy" (modE (arch.) "ween")	wähnen “to believe wrongly”	vone "hope, expect"	vona/vone (Nynorsk) "hope, expect"; vona (Ice.) “hope”
wendan "turn, go" (modE “wend, went”)	wenden "turn"	vende "turn"	venda (Ice.) “turn around”; wenden (Du.) “turn”
weorþan "become; happen" (modE (arch./dial.) "worth")	werden "become"	vorde (arch./bibl.) "become, be"	vorde (Dan. (arch./bibl.)) "become"; verða (Ice.) “become; happen”; worden (Du.) “become; be”
witan “know” (modE “wit”)	wissen “know”	vite “know”	vita (Ice.) “know”; weten (Du.) “know”
wrecan "avenge" (modE "wreak")	rächen "avenge"	--	wreken (Du.) "avenge"
wunian "dwell" (modE (dial.) "won")	wohnen "live, reside"	(cf. våning "dwelling, home")	wonen (Du.) "dwell"
wyrcan “make, do, use, form, produce” (modE “work”)	wirken “work, have an effect; seem”	virke “have an effect, bring about, work; seem”	virka (Ice.) “work, function; have an effect”; werken (Du.) “work, function; take effect”

Books used:

A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. Clark-Hall, J. R. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1960. ISBN: 0-8020-6548-1.

Altenglisches Etymologiches Wörterbuch. Holthausen, F. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag C. Winter, 1974. ISBN: 3-8253-0508-9.

Altnordisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch. de Vries, Jan. Leiden: Brill, 4. Auflage, 2000. ISBN: 90-04-05436-7.

Etymologisch Woordenboek. Onze woorden, hun oorsprong en ontwikkeling. de Vries, J. & de Tollenaere, F. Houten: Het Spectrum, 21. druk, 2016. ISBN: 978-90-491-0613-3.

Íslensk-Ensk Orðabók/Concise Icelandic-English Dictionary. Hólmarsson, S., Sanders, C. and Tucker, J. (eds.). Reykjavík: Iðunn, 1989. ISBN: 9979-1-0049-4.

Norsk-Engelsk Ordbok: a pronouncing and translating dictionary of modern Norwegian. Haugen, E. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 4. utgave, 1996. ISBN: 82-00-22722-7.

Norwegisch-dänisches etymologisches Wörterbuch (2 vols.). Falk, H.S. and Torp, A. (Sammlung Germanischer Elementar- und Handbücher IV. Reihe: Wörterbücher 1). Heidelberg: Carl Winters Universitätsbuchhandlung, 1910.

Websites used:

https://bosworthtoller.com/

https://www.etymonline.com/

https://www.vandale.nl/

https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Wiktionary:Main_Page

© Edward Smith 2023.

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